{"id":2771,"date":"2025-12-08T00:53:51","date_gmt":"2025-12-08T00:53:51","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/keling-surgicallight.com\/?p=2771"},"modified":"2025-12-08T03:20:55","modified_gmt":"2025-12-08T03:20:55","slug":"antique-surgery-tools","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/keling-surgicallight.com\/ar\/antique-surgery-tools\/","title":{"rendered":"\u0623\u062f\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0631\u0627\u062d\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u062a\u064a\u0642\u0629"},"content":{"rendered":"<h1>Antique Surgery Tools: A Historical Guide to Collecting, Identifying &amp; Preserving Medical Artifacts<\/h1>\n<p>In the quiet, climate-controlled storage of a museum or displayed in a collector\u2019s cabinet, antique surgery tools hold a unique and potent power. They are objects of stark beauty and chilling purpose, sitting at a fascinating intersection of art, craftsmanship, science, and human suffering. To hold a 19th-century <a class=\"smart-interlink\" href=\"https:\/\/keling-surgicallight.com\/antique-surgical-tools\/\" title=\"amputation saw\">amputation saw<\/a> is to feel the weight of medical history in your hands\u2014a tangible link to an era of bravery, desperation, and incremental progress. For over fifteen years, as a curator and researcher specializing in the history of medicine, I have documented, preserved, and studied these artifacts. They are not mere curiosities; they are primary sources that tell the visceral story of our quest to heal. This guide is designed to be a trustworthy resource for new collectors, history enthusiasts, and medical professionals alike, offering a framework for understanding, authenticating, and ethically preserving these profound pieces of our past. We will navigate this field with respect, emphasizing the importance of provenance, conservation, and the sobering historical context these tools represent.<\/p>\n<h2>The Evolution of Surgical Instruments: From Barber Surgeons to Modern Medicine<\/h2>\n<p>The history of surgical tools is, in many ways, the history of medicine itself\u2014a journey from crude, public intervention to precise, aseptic science. Understanding this evolution is crucial for contextualizing any instrument you may encounter.<\/p>\n<h3>The Barber-Surgeon Era (Medieval to 18th Century)<\/h3>\n<p>For centuries, surgery was not the domain of university-trained physicians but of barber-surgeons, who combined haircuts with bloodletting, tooth extraction, and limb amputations. Speed was the only \u201canesthetic,\u201d and infection was an expected, often fatal, outcome. Tools from this period reflect this brutal reality. They are often simple, multipurpose, and designed for external procedures.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Lancets and Fleams:<\/strong> Used for bloodletting, the dominant medical theory for centuries. Fleams, often spring-loaded, were used on animals and humans.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Bone Saws:<\/strong> Large, bow-shaped saws with brutal teeth, used for swift amputation. Handles were often wooden for grip.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Trephines:<\/strong> Crown-shaped saws for drilling holes into the skull, used to treat fractures or release \u201cevil spirits.\u201d These are some of the oldest surgical tools known.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Materials:<\/strong> Primarily wrought iron and early steel, with handles of wood, bone, or horn. Craftsmanship varies widely, often made by local blacksmiths.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>The Advent of Anesthesia and Antisepsis (19th Century Revolution)<\/h3>\n<p>The mid-19th century brought two monumental breakthroughs: effective anesthesia (1846) and the germ theory of disease, leading to antisepsis (1860s). Suddenly, surgeons had time to operate carefully inside the body, and patients had a chance to survive the procedure without fatal infection. This sparked an explosion in surgical innovation and tool specialization.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Proliferation of Kits:<\/strong> Elaborate, compartmentalized chests became common, containing dedicated sets for amputation, trephination, or cataract surgery.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Specialized Instruments:<\/strong> The era saw the refinement of <strong>\u0645\u0644\u0642\u0637 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0627\u0646<\/strong> (hemostats), <strong>retractors<\/strong> to hold wounds open, and more delicate <strong>\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0627\u0642\u0637<\/strong> \u0648 <strong>scalpels<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Complex Devices:<\/strong> Tools like the <strong>\u00e9craseur<\/strong> (a chain-driven device for removing tumors) and improved <strong>obstetrical forceps<\/strong> (often ornately decorated) showcase the period\u2019s mechanical ingenuity.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Standardization and Specialization (Late 19th to Early 20th Century)<\/h3>\n<p>By the late 1800s, surgery was becoming a respected profession. Instrument manufacturing moved from individual craftsmen to industrialized firms, leading to standardization.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>\u0635\u0627\u0646\u0639\u0648\u0646 \u0645\u0634\u0647\u0648\u0631\u0648\u0646:<\/strong> Companies like <strong>J. Gray &amp; Co. (London)<\/strong>, <strong>George Tiemann &amp; Co. (New York)<\/strong>, \u060c \u0648 <strong>Charri\u00e8re (France)<\/strong> became hallmarks of quality. Their stamps are key to identification.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Material Shift:<\/strong> The move from carbon steel (which stains and rusts easily) to <strong>stainless steel<\/strong> in the early 20th century was a watershed moment, allowing for proper sterilization.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Catalog Culture:<\/strong> Firms published detailed illustrated catalogs, allowing surgeons worldwide to order standardized sets. These catalogs are invaluable reference tools for collectors today.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>How to Identify and Authenticate Antique Surgical Tools<\/h2>\n<p>For a collector, the thrill lies in the detective work. Correctly identifying an instrument requires examining its form, function, and fingerprints of age.<\/p>\n<h3>Key Materials and Manufacturing Marks<\/h3>\n<p>Start with a close visual and tactile inspection.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Materials:<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>\u0645\u0627 \u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0639\u0627\u0645 1850:<\/strong> \u0627\u0628\u062d\u062b \u0639\u0646 <strong>wrought iron<\/strong> (black, fibrous grain), <strong>carbon steel<\/strong> (can have a dark patina or \u201cage-gray\u201d finish), and handles of <strong>ebony, rosewood, ivory, or bone<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Post-1850:<\/strong> <strong>Nickel-plated or silver-plated steel<\/strong> becomes common for corrosion resistance. <strong>Stainless steel<\/strong> appears post-1910.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Handles:<\/strong> Early tools have <strong>fixed handles<\/strong>. <strong>\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0628\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0628\u0644\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0641\u0635\u0644<\/strong> (\u0644\u0644\u0634\u0641\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0628\u0644\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u062a\u0628\u062f\u064a\u0644) \u0623\u0635\u0628\u062d\u062a \u0634\u0627\u0626\u0639\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0648\u0627\u062e\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0631\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0633\u0639 \u0639\u0634\u0631.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0645\u0627\u062a:<\/strong> \u0627\u0641\u062d\u0635 \u0643\u0644 \u0633\u0637\u062d \u0644\u0644\u0628\u062d\u062b \u0639\u0646:\n<ul>\n<li><strong>\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0627\u0646\u0639:<\/strong> \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0633\u0645\u0627\u0621 \u0623\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0639\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0637\u0628\u0648\u0639\u0629 (\u0645\u062b\u0627\u0644: \u201cG. TIEMANN &amp; CO. \/ NEW YORK\u201d).<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u062a\u0648\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0628\u0631\u0627\u0621\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0627\u062e\u062a\u0631\u0627\u0639:<\/strong> \u0645\u062b\u0627\u0644: \u201cPAT\u2019D JAN 4, 1876\u201d.<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0623\u0631\u0642\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0633\/\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u062f\u064a\u0644:<\/strong> \u062a\u0648\u062c\u062f \u063a\u0627\u0644\u0628\u064b\u0627 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0633\u0627\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0641\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0623\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0644\u0627\u0642\u0637.<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u062f\u0645\u063a\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0645\u0627\u0646:<\/strong> \u062a\u0648\u062c\u062f \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062f\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0637\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0636\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0625\u0646 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u0623\u0642\u0644 \u0634\u064a\u0648\u0639\u064b\u0627 \u0645\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u062f\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u0626\u062f\u0629.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0639\u0631\u0641 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0623\u0646\u0648\u0627\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062f\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0627\u0626\u0639\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0627\u0645\u0627\u062a\u0647\u0627<\/h3>\n<p>\u062a\u0639\u0631\u0641 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0626\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0626\u064a\u0633\u064a\u0629:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><strong>\u0645\u062c\u0645\u0648\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0628\u062a\u0631:<\/strong> \u062a\u062d\u062a\u0648\u064a \u0639\u0644\u0649 <strong>\u0645\u0646\u0634\u0627\u0631 \u0628\u062a\u0631 \u0643\u0628\u064a\u0631<\/strong>, <strong>\u0633\u0643\u064a\u0646 \u0643\u0627\u062a\u0644\u064a\u0646<\/strong> (\u0633\u0643\u064a\u0646 \u0637\u0648\u064a\u0644 \u0645\u0633\u062a\u0642\u064a\u0645)\u060c, <strong>\u0633\u0643\u064a\u0646 \u0644\u064a\u0633\u062a\u0648\u0646<\/strong> (\u0645\u0646\u062d\u0646\u064a)\u060c, <strong>\u0645\u0644\u0642\u0637 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0631\u064a\u0627\u0646<\/strong>, \u060c \u0648 <strong>retractors<\/strong>. \u0648\u062a\u064f\u062d\u0641\u0638 \u0641\u064a \u0635\u0646\u062f\u0648\u0642 \u062e\u0634\u0628\u064a \u0645\u062e\u0635\u0635.<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0645\u062c\u0645\u0648\u0639\u0627\u062a \u062b\u0642\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0645\u062c\u0645\u0629:<\/strong> \u062a\u062a\u0645\u064a\u0632 \u0628\u0639\u062f\u0629 <strong>\u0645\u062b\u0627\u0642\u0628 \u062c\u0645\u062c\u0645\u064a\u0629<\/strong> (\u0645\u0646\u0627\u0634\u064a\u0631 \u062f\u0627\u0626\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0628\u0623\u062d\u062c\u0627\u0645 \u0645\u062e\u062a\u0644\u0641\u0629)\u060c, <strong>\u0648\u0627\u0642\u064a\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0627\u0641\u064a\u0629<\/strong>, <strong>\u0648\u0631\u0641\u0627\u0639\u0627\u062a<\/strong> \u0644\u0631\u0641\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0638\u0645\u060c \u0648 <strong>\u0645\u0646\u0634\u0627\u0631 \u0647\u064a<\/strong> (\u0645\u0646\u0634\u0627\u0631 \u0635\u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0631\u0646).<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0645\u0644\u0627\u0642\u0637 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0648\u0644\u064a\u062f:<\/strong> \u063a\u0627\u0644\u0628\u064b\u0627 \u0645\u0627 \u062a\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631 \u0632\u062e\u0631\u0641\u0629\u060c \u0628\u0634\u0641\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0645\u0646\u062d\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0628\u062f\u0642\u0629 \u0648\u0623\u0642\u0641\u0627\u0644 \u0627\u0646\u0632\u0644\u0627\u0642\u064a\u0629. \u0623\u0633\u0645\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0627\u0646\u0639\u064a\u0646 \u0628\u0627\u0631\u0632\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u064a\u0647\u0627.<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0623\u0648\u0627\u0646\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0632\u0641:<\/strong> \u0623\u0637\u0628\u0627\u0642 \u062e\u0632\u0641\u064a\u0629 \u0623\u0648 \u0645\u0639\u062f\u0646\u064a\u0629 \u0628\u0647\u0627 \u0634\u0642 \u0623\u0641\u0642\u064a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u0627\u0641\u0629 \u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0646\u062f\u0627\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0630\u0631\u0627\u0639 \u0623\u062b\u0646\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0635\u062f. \u063a\u0627\u0644\u0628\u064b\u0627 \u0645\u0627 \u062a\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0645\u0632\u062e\u0631\u0641\u0629.<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0645\u062c\u0645\u0648\u0639\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0631\u0627\u062d\u0629 (\u0627\u0644\u062c\u064a\u0628\u064a\u0629\/\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u0645\u0648\u0644\u0629):<\/strong> \u0644\u0641\u0627\u0626\u0641 \u0623\u0648 \u062d\u0627\u0641\u0638\u0627\u062a \u062c\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u062f\u0645\u062c\u0629 \u062a\u062d\u062a\u0648\u064a \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0645\u0634\u0627\u062d\u0637 \u0648\u0645\u0644\u0627\u0642\u0637 \u0648\u0645\u0633\u0628\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0648\u0645\u0644\u0627\u0642\u0637 \u0644\u0644\u0623\u0637\u0628\u0627\u0621 \u0623\u062b\u0646\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0646\u0642\u0644.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<h3>\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0650\u062f\u064e\u0645 \u0645\u0642\u0627\u0628\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u062e \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062b\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0644\u062f\u0629<\/h3>\n<p>\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0645\u064a\u064a\u0632 \u0628\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0637\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062b\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0635\u064a\u0644\u0629 \u0648\u0642\u0637\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u064a\u0643\u0648\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062b\u0629 \u0623\u0645\u0631 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u063a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0647\u0645\u064a\u0629.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0650\u062f\u064e\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0635\u064a\u0644\u0629:<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>\u0627\u0644\u0635\u062f\u0623 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u064a\u0639\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0627\u062f\u0642:<\/strong> \u0645\u0644\u0645\u0633 \u0628\u0627\u0647\u062a \u0645\u062a\u0633\u0642 \u0645\u0639 \u0635\u062f\u0623 \u0637\u0641\u064a\u0641 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0637\u062d (\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0631\u060c \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0646\u0634\u0637 \u0623\u0648 \u0645\u062a\u0642\u0634\u0631). \u062a\u0622\u0643\u0644 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0628\u0636 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0623\u062c\u0632\u0627\u0621 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u062d\u0631\u0643\u0629 \u0646\u062a\u064a\u062c\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0639\u0644\u064a.<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0639\u0644\u0627\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0634\u063a\u064a\u0644:<\/strong> \u0627\u0628\u062d\u062b \u0639\u0646 \u062e\u0637\u0648\u0637 \u062f\u0642\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0645\u062a\u0648\u0627\u0632\u064a\u0629 \u0646\u0627\u062a\u062c\u0629 \u0639\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u062f \u0623\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u062d\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u064a\u062f\u0648\u064a\u060c \u0648\u0644\u064a\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0637\u062d \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062b\u0627\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0646\u062a\u0638\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0627\u062a\u062c \u0639\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0634\u063a\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0622\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062b.<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0627\u0644\u0628\u0646\u0627\u0621:<\/strong> \u0642\u062f \u062a\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u0627\u063a\u064a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062f\u0628\u0627\u0628\u064a\u0633 \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0646\u062a\u0638\u0645\u0629 \u0642\u0644\u064a\u0644\u0627\u064b. \u0642\u062f \u062a\u062d\u062a\u0648\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062f\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0645\u0646 \u0646\u0648\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0635 \u0639\u0644\u0649 <strong>\u0642\u0641\u0644 \u0635\u0646\u062f\u0648\u0642\u064a<\/strong> (\u0645\u0641\u0635\u0644 \u0645\u062a\u0634\u0627\u0628\u0643 \u0635\u0644\u0628) \u0628\u062f\u0644\u0627\u064b \u0645\u0646 \u0628\u0631\u063a\u064a \u0628\u0633\u064a\u0637.<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0623\u0646\u0645\u0627\u0637 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0622\u0643\u0644:<\/strong> \u062a\u0622\u0643\u0644 \u0645\u062a\u0637\u0627\u0628\u0642 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0637\u0627\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0627\u062e\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u062d\u0627\u0641\u0638\u0629 \u0645\u0646 \u0645\u0643\u0627\u0646 \u0648\u062c\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062f\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0644\u0639\u0642\u0648\u062f.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0645\u0624\u0634\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0630\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0637\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0644\u062f\u0629:<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>\u0627\u0644\u0635\u062f\u0623 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0641\u0631\u0637 \u201c\u0627\u0644\u0645\u064f\u0637\u0628\u0642\u201d:<\/strong> \u063a\u0627\u0644\u0628\u064b\u0627 \u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0645\u0631\u0634\u0648\u0634\u064b\u0627 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\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0634\u0637:<\/strong> \u0627\u0644\u0635\u062f\u0623 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0631\u062a\u0642\u0627\u0644\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0642\u0634\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u064a\u0646\u062a\u0634\u0631 \u064a\u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0645\u0634\u0643\u0644\u0629. \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0631\u0629 \u0644\u064a\u0633\u062a \u0643\u0630\u0644\u0643.<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0627\u0644\u0643\u0633\u0648\u0631:<\/strong> \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0641\u0631\u0629 \u0623\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0642\u0628\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064f\u0635\u0644\u062d \u064a\u0624\u062b\u0631 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u064a\u0645\u0629 \u0644\u0643\u0646 \u0644\u064a\u0633 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0636\u0631\u0648\u0631\u0629 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u064a\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a\u0629.<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u0628\u062f\u0627\u0644\u0627\u062a:<\/strong> \u062c\u0632\u0621 \u0628\u062f\u064a\u0644 \u0635\u062d\u064a\u062d \u0644\u0644\u0641\u062a\u0631\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0645\u062c\u0645\u0648\u0639\u0629 \u0623\u0635\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0628\u062e\u0644\u0627\u0641 \u0630\u0644\u0643 \u0645\u0642\u0628\u0648\u0644\u061b \u0644\u0643\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0645\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062f\u064a\u062b \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0645\u0642\u0628\u0648\u0644.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>\u0627\u0644\u0627\u0639\u062a\u0628\u0627\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062e\u0644\u0627\u0642\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0627\u0645\u0629<\/h3>\n<p>\u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0642\u0637\u0639 \u0623\u062b\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0644\u064a\u0633\u062a \u0623\u062c\u0647\u0632\u0629 \u0637\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0638\u064a\u0641\u064a\u0629.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>\u0644\u0627 \u062a\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0645:<\/strong> \u0644\u0627 \u062a\u062d\u0627\u0648\u0644 \u0623\u0628\u062f\u064b\u0627 \u0627\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0627\u0645 \u0623\u062f\u0627\u0629 \u0639\u062a\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u063a\u0631\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0635\u0644\u064a \u0644\u0647\u0627. \u064a\u0645\u0643\u0646 \u0623\u0646 \u062a\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0627\u062f\u0646 \u0647\u0634\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0639\u0642\u064a\u0645 \u0645\u0633\u062a\u062d\u064a\u0644. \u0647\u064a \u0645\u062e\u0635\u0635\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u062f\u0631\u0627\u0633\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0636 \u0641\u0642\u0637.<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0627\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u062a\u0631\u0645:<\/strong> \u062a\u0630\u0643\u0631 \u0623\u0646 \u0643\u0644 \u0623\u062f\u0627\u0629 \u0643\u0627\u0646\u062a \u062a\u064f\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0645 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0634\u062e\u0635 \u062d\u064a\u060c \u063a\u0627\u0644\u0628\u064b\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0623\u0644\u0645 \u0634\u062f\u064a\u062f. \u0627\u0639\u0631\u0636\u0647\u0627 \u0648\u0646\u0627\u0642\u0634\u0647\u0627 \u0628\u062d\u0633\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629 \u062a\u062c\u0627\u0647 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u062c\u0631\u0628\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0629.<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0627\u0644\u0648\u0639\u064a \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0645\u062e\u0627\u0637\u0631:<\/strong> \u0628\u0639\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0644\u0627\u0621\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u064a\u0645\u0629 \u0642\u062f \u062a\u062d\u062a\u0648\u064a \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0635\u0627\u0635 \u0623\u0648 \u0633\u0645\u0648\u0645 \u0623\u062e\u0631\u0649. \u0627\u063a\u0633\u0644 \u064a\u062f\u064a\u0643 \u0628\u0639\u062f \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0639\u0627\u0645\u0644 \u0648\u062a\u062c\u0646\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0636 \u062d\u064a\u062b \u064a\u0645\u0643\u0646 \u0644\u0644\u0623\u0637\u0641\u0627\u0644 \u0644\u0645\u0633\u0647\u0627.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>\u0627\u0644\u062d\u0641\u0627\u0638 \u0639\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e: \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0646\u0627\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0635\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u064a\u0645\u064a\u0646<\/h2>\n<p>\u062f\u0648\u0631\u0643 \u0643\u062c\u0627\u0645\u0639 \u0647\u0648 \u0625\u064a\u0642\u0627\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0644\u0641 \u0648\u0646\u0642\u0644 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0637\u0639 \u0625\u0644\u0649 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0628\u0644 \u0641\u064a \u062d\u0627\u0644\u0629 \u0645\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0631\u0629.<\/p>\n<h3>\u0627\u0644\u062a\u062b\u0628\u064a\u062a \u0648\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0646\u0638\u064a\u0641 (\u0645\u0627 \u064a\u062c\u0628 \u0641\u0639\u0644\u0647 \u0648\u0645\u0627 \u0644\u0627 \u064a\u062c\u0628)<\/h3>\n<p>\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0639\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0630\u0647\u0628\u064a\u0629: <strong>\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0642\u0644 \u0647\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0643\u062b\u0631. \u0644\u0627 \u062a\u062d\u0627\u0648\u0644 \u0623\u0628\u062f\u064b\u0627 \u201c\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0635\u0644\u064a\u062d\u201d \u0644\u062a\u0639\u0648\u062f \u0643\u0627\u0644\u062c\u062f\u064a\u062f\u0629.<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>\u0627\u0641\u0639\u0644:<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>\u0623\u0632\u0644 \u0628\u0631\u0641\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0648\u0633\u0627\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0637\u062d\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0636\u0641\u0627\u0636\u0629 \u0628\u0641\u0631\u0634\u0627\u0629 \u0646\u0627\u0639\u0645\u0629 \u0648\u062c\u0627\u0641\u0629.<\/li>\n<li>\u0644\u0644\u0635\u062f\u0623 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0634\u0637\u060c \u0627\u0633\u062a\u0634\u0631 \u0623\u062e\u0635\u0627\u0626\u064a \u0635\u0648\u0646. \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0631\u064a\u0642\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0642\u0644 \u062a\u062f\u062e\u0644\u0627\u064b \u0644\u0644\u0641\u0648\u0644\u0627\u0630 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0631 \u0647\u064a \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0637\u0628\u064a\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0642\u064a\u0642 \u0644\u0640 <strong>\u0634\u0645\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0633\u062a\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0642\u064a\u0642<\/strong> (\u0645\u062b\u0644 \u0634\u0645\u0639 \u0639\u0635\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0646\u0647\u0636\u0629) \u0644\u062e\u062a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0637\u062d.<\/li>\n<li>\u0627\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0645 <strong>\u0648\u0631\u0642 \u0646\u0633\u064a\u062c \u062e\u0627\u0644\u064d \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062d\u0645\u0627\u0636\u060c \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062f\u0631\u062c\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0631\u0634\u064a\u0641\u064a\u0629<\/strong> \u0644\u0644\u062a\u063a\u0644\u064a\u0641.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0644\u0627 \u062a\u0641\u0639\u0644:<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>\u0644\u0627 \u062a\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0645<\/strong> \u0635\u0648\u0641 \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0648\u0644\u0627\u0630\u060c \u0648\u0631\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0646\u0641\u0631\u0629\u060c \u0641\u0631\u0627\u0634\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0633\u0644\u0643\u060c \u0623\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0627\u062f \u0627\u0644\u0643\u064a\u0645\u064a\u0627\u0626\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0633\u064a\u0629. \u0647\u0630\u0627 \u064a\u062f\u0645\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0644\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a\u0629 \u0648\u064a\u0642\u0644\u0644 \u0645\u0646 \u0642\u064a\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0637\u0639\u0629.<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0644\u0627<\/strong> \u062a\u0646\u0642\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062f\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0632\u064a\u062a \u0623\u0648 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0630\u064a\u0628\u0627\u062a.<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0644\u0627<\/strong> \u062a\u062d\u0627\u0648\u0644 \u0625\u0639\u0627\u062f\u0629 \u0634\u062d\u0630 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0641\u0631\u0627\u062a \u0623\u0648 \u0625\u062c\u0628\u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0641\u0627\u0635\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062a\u0635\u0644\u0628\u0629.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>\u0627\u0644\u062a\u062e\u0632\u064a\u0646 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0636 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u062b\u0644<\/h3>\n<p>\u0627\u0644\u0623\u0639\u062f\u0627\u0621 \u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0637\u0648\u0628\u0629\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0636\u0648\u0621\u060c \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0635\u062f\u0645\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0629.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>\u0627\u0644\u0628\u064a\u0626\u0629:<\/strong> \u0627\u0633\u062a\u0647\u062f\u0641 \u0628\u064a\u0626\u0629 \u0645\u0633\u062a\u0642\u0631\u0629 \u0648\u0628\u0627\u0631\u062f\u0629 \u0645\u0639 <strong>\u0631\u0637\u0648\u0628\u0629 \u0646\u0633\u0628\u064a\u0629 \u062d\u0648\u0627\u0644\u064a 45-55\u066a<\/strong>. \u0627\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0645 \u0645\u0632\u064a\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0637\u0648\u0628\u0629 \u0625\u0630\u0627 \u0644\u0632\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0645\u0631. <strong>\u062a\u062c\u0646\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0644\u0651\u064a\u0627\u062a\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0623\u0642\u0628\u064a\u0629\u060c \u0648\u0623\u0634\u0639\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u0645\u0633 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0628\u0627\u0634\u0631\u0629.<\/strong><\/li>\n<li><strong>\u062e\u0632\u0627\u0646\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0636:<\/strong> \u0627\u0633\u062a\u062e\u062f\u0645 \u062e\u0632\u0627\u0646\u0627\u062a \u0639\u0631\u0636 \u0645\u062d\u0643\u0645\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0625\u063a\u0644\u0627\u0642 \u0645\u0639 <strong>\u0632\u062c\u0627\u062c \u0623\u0648 \u0623\u0643\u0631\u064a\u0644\u064a\u0643 \u0645\u0632\u0648\u062f \u0628\u0645\u0631\u0634\u062d \u0644\u0644\u0623\u0634\u0639\u0629 \u0641\u0648\u0642 \u0627\u0644\u0628\u0646\u0641\u0633\u062c\u064a\u0629<\/strong>. \u0628\u0637\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0632\u0627\u0646\u0627\u062a \u0628\u0640 <strong>\u0642\u0645\u0627\u0634 \u0623\u0648 \u0644\u0628\u0627\u062f \u062e\u0627\u0644\u064d \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062d\u0645\u0627\u0636<\/strong>.<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u0627\u0644\u062a\u062e\u0632\u064a\u0646:<\/strong> \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0633\u0628\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u0623\u062f\u0648\u0627\u062a \u063a\u064a\u0631 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0631\u0648\u0636\u0629\u060c \u062e\u0632\u0646\u0647\u0627 \u0641\u064a \u0635\u0646\u0627\u062f\u064a\u0642 \u0623\u0631\u0634\u064a\u0641\u064a\u0629 \u0645\u0639 \u0623\u0643\u064a\u0627\u0633 \u0647\u0644\u0627\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0633\u064a\u0644\u064a\u0643\u0627 \u0644\u0644\u062a\u062d\u0643\u0645 \u0641\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0631\u0637\u0648\u0628\u0629.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>\u0645\u062a\u0649 \u062a\u0633\u062a\u0634\u064a\u0631 \u0623\u062e\u0635\u0627\u0626\u064a \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0648\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u062d\u062a\u0631\u0641<\/h3>\n<p>\u0627\u0637\u0644\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0633\u0627\u0639\u062f\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u062e\u0628\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0641\u064a\u0645\u0627 \u064a\u0644\u064a:<br \/>\n*   <strong>\u0627\u0644\u062a\u0622\u0643\u0644 \u0627\u0644\u0634\u062f\u064a\u062f \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0646\u0634\u0637<\/strong> \u0627\u0644\u0630\u064a \u064a\u062a\u0642\u0634\u0631 \u0623\u0648 \u064a\u0643\u0648\u0646 \u0645\u0633\u062d\u0648\u0642\u064b\u0627.<br \/>\n*   \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062f\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0630\u0627\u062a <strong>\u0645\u0642\u0627\u0628\u0636 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0627\u062c\u060c \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0638\u0645\u060c \u0623\u0648 \u0645\u0648\u0627\u062f \u0639\u0636\u0648\u064a\u0629 \u0647\u0634\u0629<\/strong> \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u062a\u062a\u0634\u0642\u0642 \u0623\u0648 \u062a\u062c\u0641.<br \/>\n*   <strong>\u0627\u0644\u0642\u0637\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u064a\u0643\u0627\u0646\u064a\u0643\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0645\u0639\u0642\u062f\u0629<\/strong> \u0627\u0644\u062a\u064a \u064a\u062a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0633\u062a\u064a\u0644\u0627\u0621 \u0639\u0644\u064a\u0647\u0627 \u0623\u0648 \u062a\u062a\u0644\u0641.<br \/>\n*   \u0623\u064a \u0642\u0637\u0639\u0629 \u0630\u0627\u062a <strong>\u0642\u064a\u0645\u0629 \u0645\u0627\u0644\u064a\u0629 \u0623\u0648 \u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0633\u062a\u062b\u0646\u0627\u0626\u064a\u0629<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<h2>\u0623\u0647\u0645\u064a\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062f\u0648\u0627\u062a \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062b\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u0641\u064a \u0641\u0647\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u062a\u0627\u0631\u064a\u062e \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u064a<\/h2>\n<p>\u0623\u0628\u0639\u062f \u0645\u0646 \u062e\u0632\u0627\u0646\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0631\u0636\u060c \u062a\u062e\u062f\u0645 \u0647\u0630\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0637\u0639 \u0627\u0644\u0623\u062b\u0631\u064a\u0629 \u063a\u0631\u0636\u064b\u0627 \u0623\u0639\u0638\u0645.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>\u0631\u0648\u0627\u0628\u0637 \u0645\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0633\u0629 \u0644\u0644\u062a\u0642\u062f\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0637\u0628\u064a:<\/strong> \u0625\u0646\u0647\u0627 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